Investigation of Water and Moisture Effects on Roofs and Facades of Seljuk-Era Architectural Works

Summary

Konya, which served as the capital during the Seljuk period, is rich in authentic architectural works. In this research, sample architectural structures were selected from Konya and its surroundings to define the scope of the subject. Traditional materials such as stone, brick, adobe, and wood were used in the walls of historical structures with architectural significance. Their roofs underwent maintenance and repairs with broken, barrel, and domed roofs constructed, while some have collapsed and been left to their own fate to deteriorate. The study aimed to investigate the causes of deterioration in the roofs and facades of Seljuk period architectural works, specifically the effects of the physical environment and water-moisture problems. In historical Seljuk period structures, on-site inspections were conducted, observations were made, and problems were investigated regarding damage caused by rainwater from the atmosphere, water rising from the ground through capillarity, the failure to resolve necessary details regarding water and moisture in roofs, eaves and gutters, insufficient measures against wetting, freeze-thaw effects, rainwater and air pollution interaction, neglect, indifference, and poor use. In the conclusion and recommendations section, it was determined that adequate measures have not been taken on roofs and facades to counteract the destructive effects of water and moisture in protecting Seljuk period architectural works. Recommendations were made that the details and insulation problems in roofs and facades should be resolved, and abandoned structures should be protected to preserve our authentic Seljuk period architectural heritage from water and moisture and to pass it on to future generations.

1. Introduction

During the Seljuk period, Konya was subjected to raids at different times and was definitively captured by Kutalmış's son Süleyman Bey and made the capital of the Seljuks (1076). The capital, which was moved to Nicaea in 1080, was soon relocated back to Konya and remained there until the fall of the Seljuks (1097). Even today, it can be seen that the city possesses historical architectural works that would lead to its being called a "Seljuk Civilization Center." In Seljuk period architectural works, it was observed that the major factors in facade deterioration were atmospheric effects, lack of maintenance, indifference, destruction by human hand, and water and moisture problems. Through the effects of water and moisture, efflorescence, wear, piece loss, and detail deterioration on building materials have been identified. Construction errors in the construction of architectural works, external and internal factors cause the deterioration of building materials used on facades. Their aging over time compromises the architectural authenticity of the structure. In historical buildings, important errors emerge before construction is completed, from poor implementation and inappropriate material selection, just as in buildings constructed today. Furthermore, materials must also be compatible with physical, chemical, and atmospheric effects. Therefore, the materials used on the facades of historical structures must be resistant to thermal expansion, water-moisture problems, freeze-thaw, microorganisms, and sun effects. In the study conducted, the causes of water-moisture effects on the roofs and facades of historical architectural works from the Seljuk period were explained, examples were selected from Konya and its immediate surroundings, and water-moisture effects on roofs and facades were investigated. Due to the failure of eaves on the roofs of historically significant structures and gutters used to remove rainwater to perform their function, water was observed to deteriorate facade materials. It was determined that adequate measures were not taken for water and moisture insulation on the walls of historical structures in contact with soil, drainage systems that should exist were not constructed to divert water found near the ground-contact walls of historical structures away from them, water in saturated soil rose through capillarity to building facades, and caused damage to the works. For this reason, examining the roofs and facades of Seljuk period historical works that we are obligated to pass on to future generations, investigating their problems, and presenting solution recommendations is an important matter.

2. Causes of Water-Moisture Effects in Roofs and Facades of Seljuk Period Historical Structures

The causes of water-moisture effects on roofs and facades of Seljuk period architectural works are listed as rainwater coming through precipitation from the atmosphere, water rising from the ground through capillarity, the failure to resolve necessary details regarding water and moisture in roofs, eaves and gutters, insufficient measures against wetting, freeze-thaw effects, rainwater and air pollution interaction, neglect, indifference, and problems resulting from poor use.

2.1. Rainwater Coming Through Precipitation from the Atmosphere

Rainwater falling on facades due to wind effects enters through cracks or gaps in building materials, resulting in moisture. Water absorption occurs through wind pressure, the kinetic energy of rain droplets, and air flow. Water reaching the wall surface causes facades to become wet [1].

2.2. Water Rising from the Ground Through Capillarity

In historical structures, pressurized water and capillary action are observed in foundations, basement walls, and floors. Water enters building elements through capillary voids in horizontal or vertical directions and can rise upward against gravity. Water rising from the ground causes efflorescence as a result of the evaporation of salts it carries on the facade surface, and results in deterioration of the physical and chemical structure of walls.

2.3. Failure to Resolve Necessary Details Regarding Water and Moisture in Roofs, Eaves and Gutters

Problems are being experienced because the details that remove rainwater from roofs away from the structure are being modified today. In Seljuk period structures, water removal was considered, but in repair work conducted today under the pretext of maintenance, water has not been diverted away from the structure; instead, it has been directed to the building's ground walls, resulting in facade deterioration. During the repair of structures, details related to water on roofs, facades, eaves and gutters must be resolved correctly.

2.4. Insufficient Measures Against Wetting, Freeze-Thaw Effects

When water is in contact with the wall material surface, it is transported into the interior of the material. If absorbed water cannot be balanced by mechanisms such as evaporation, it continues to rise within the porous wall against gravity. Salts dissolved in water cause stains and efflorescence on facades. Water causes dissolution in stone materials through oxidation, carbonation, solution, hydration, and hydrolysis together with pollutants in the atmosphere [2]. Structures are worn down over many years under various effects of nature and deterioration occurs if continuous maintenance is not provided. Temperature differences and freeze-thaw cause materials to fatigue and wear. When water entering cracks freezes, it creates an expansion effect, thus causing piece loss [3].

2.5. Rainwater and Air Pollution Interaction

Chemical formations resulting from the interaction of rainwater and air pollution cause various types of damage and deterioration on the surface or internal structure of materials. In particular, the surfaces of traditional building materials must be protected from rainwater.

2.6. Damage Resulting from Lack of Maintenance, Indifference, and Poor Use

Historical structures should be maintained at regular intervals. As long as lack of maintenance and indifference continue, the harmful effects of factors causing deterioration also continue [4]. Vehicles passing on roads near historical structures cause vibrations in the structures and damage to foundations due to applied pressure. Water, which is the most important of the physical environmental effects causing deterioration on building facades, must be diverted away from the structure without entering the building mass. However, because exterior walls are in vertical position, they are little affected by rainfall, while building roofs are exposed to much more rainfall even if given sufficient slope. For this reason, weight in solving the problem of protecting external walls against water rests on roofs and eaves [5]. Solutions must be developed for water rising from the ground and deterioration of historical structures must be prevented.

3. Water-Moisture Effects on Roofs and Facades of Seljuk Period Architectural Works

Seven structures were examined as examples from Seljuk period architectural works (from the Konya area). Damage caused by water and moisture effects on the facades of Alaeddin Mosque (1220), the remains of Alaeddin (Kılıçarslan II) Palace (1173) which used adobe as building material, Sirçali Madrasa (1243), Karatay Madrasa (1251), and Ince Minaret Madrasa (1264) were investigated through on-site observations. Malanda Palace, Kubad Abad Palace (1235), and the remains of Kız Castle, located in the Beyşehir district of Konya, whose archaeological excavation and research have been ongoing for 35 years, had their roofs and facades destroyed, and it was observed that historical structures were left to their own fate in the open air to disappear in the face of environmental degradation.

3.1. Alaeddin Mosque

Alaeddin Mosque was begun to be constructed during the final years of Sultan Rükneddin Mesud I (1116-1155), and construction continued during the reigns of Kılıçarslan II (1155-1192), İzzeddin Keykavus I (1211-1220), and Alaeddin Keykubat I (1220-1237). The east side of the structure measures 67.70 m, and from the south corner to the east gate measures 21.20 m. The structure contains 41 stone and marble columns from the Byzantine period and earlier eras [6]. These columns are connected to each other by arches and are covered with wood and earth. Today its roof has been repaired. Alaeddin Mosque is surrounded by walls on its north, east, and west sides that appear fortified. These walls are built of regular cut stone. A balconied minaret visible at the north corner of Alaeddin Mosque belongs to the Ottoman period. An important element attracting attention behind the mosque is the portal on the north facade. In the portal of the rectangular mosque, purple and white marbles are interwoven in semicircular fashion. The finest example of Turkish stone-cutting art is seen here. This arch, woven like lace, has elaborate ornaments in the shape of inscriptions made of purple and white marble on both sides. Alaeddin Mosque was repaired during the reign of Sultan Murad III. In 1593, repairs to the structure were requested. Some people from Sille were assigned to clear snow from the mosque's earth-covered roof. In 1672, the south facade of the mosque, the walls in front of and beneath the large dome were noted to need repair, and walls were repaired using lime mortar. Alaeddin Mosque was under the control and command of the military during World War I, the War of Independence, and World War II, after which it was repaired and reopened for worship. In 1958, deep cracks appeared in the north walls; in 1959, the western part of these walls was completely demolished and the Waqf Administration began restoration work that took many years. Finally, after extensive repairs, it was reopened for worship in 1995 [7]. Deterioration on stone materials resulting from ground problems and insufficient measures against water and moisture are evident (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3).

3.2. Alaeddin Palace (Kılıçarslan II Palace)

Only the east wall remains of the Palace built by Sultan Kılıçarslan II (1156-1192), one of the tower walls of the Inner Fortress in Konya. Later, because he had the structure repaired, the palace bearing the name of Alaeddin Keykubat was originally composed of a square space surrounded by balconies on the outside, resting on large brick consoles projecting outward. The palace was covered inside and outside with rich and varied tiles. Today its tiles have been removed and its walls demolished. The adobe-constructed palace remains is on the verge of collapse due to lack of maintenance, indifference, and water-moisture effects (Figure 4, Figure 5). It was observed that excavation work began in the area around the structure but no action was taken regarding its protection and repair.

3.3. Sirçali Madrasa

Sirçali Madrasa (1242) is two stories and has eyvans. Deterioration has occurred in the structure's building materials due to water and moisture effects. With its completely symmetrical and balanced plan, it ranks among the first examples of classical Seljuk madrasas. One of Anatolia's most important madrasas, the structure's name derives from its tile decoration. Most of the four-colored rich tile ornaments covering the eyvan and the mihrab tiles have fallen due to water effects, lack of maintenance, and indifference. On both sides of the eyvan, there are domed classrooms. The second floor has collapsed. In the inscription that is now deteriorated and missing, there was information that the work was unparalleled in the world [8]. In Central Anatolia, "tiles" are called "sarça." This madrasa is famous for its tiles. Therefore, the madrasa is known as "Sirçali Madrasa." Sirçali Madrasa was built in an open courtyard plan type without a dome. The madrasa is 17 m wide and 30.50 m deep. The most striking aspect of the madrasa is its portal, which arouses admiration in visitors. The craftsmanship and ornamentation of the stones used here are noteworthy. The portal is 7.10 m wide and 2 m deep [7]. In the section framing the tiles on the west side of the eyvan, there are beautiful writings decorated with purple tiles on a background of blue flowers. Some of the tiles have fallen today due to water and moisture effects (Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8).

3.4. Karatay Madrasa

It is an example of the Seljuks' richly-spaced structure. A fountain was placed under the large dome located in the center. The dome and walls are covered with tile mosaic ornaments. The portal consists of colored stone inlay knotted passages, geometric panels, relief inscriptions, fine detailed muqarnas, spiral arch motifs, and stone carvings [8]. Some of the rooms have collapsed. An estimated completed plan has been provided. The structure's central lantern dome is covered with lead material, but the dome's water drains onto the facade walls and causes material deterioration. Deterioration has been observed in the building materials on the portal facade (Figure 9, Figure 10).

3.5. Ince Minaret Madrasa

It is located west of Konya's Alaeddin Hill. Its architect is Kelük Bin Abdullah. It was constructed in 1264. The structure underwent repairs in the 1900s; the domed rooms in ruins on both sides of the eyvan were repaired; additionally, to prevent the eyvan's back wall from opening, two thick buttress walls were constructed on its west side. The upper part and second balcony of the 55-meter minaret were destroyed in 1901 as a result of two successive lightning strikes, and the mosque's dome also collapsed [9]. The inscribed tiles of the destroyed minaret were transferred to the German Consulate. The madrasa's student cells were completely destroyed. In 1956, the work, which began serving as a Stone and Wooden Works Museum, had cleaning work done around it, was surrounded by walls, converted to an open-air museum, and its domes were covered with lead. Supports were constructed externally on walls to reinforce them. In restoration work done on the madrasa after 2002, the entire exterior and interior of the structure were completely renewed. The portal was one of the first areas to undergo maintenance. Its upper part was destroyed by rainwater and snow. Water rising from the ground through capillarity has damaged the lower section of the portal. This deterioration is gradually rising upward step by step. In work done in the mosque, the dome was rebuilt with cut stones appropriate to the original, and the structure was covered. The mosque's walls and the front arcade facing the main road were restored to their original condition. Today it is an exceptional museum that houses many art works from the medieval Seljuk, Beylik, and Ottoman periods that shed light on history [9]. The porous nature of the stones used as building material, the inadequate handling of water from the roof, and the incomplete resolution of the drainage system result in the portal facade absorbing water from the ground. The level of water rising from the ground reaches 3 m (Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13).

3.6. Malanda Palace

From the collapses visible inside the spaces of Malanda Palace, a Seljuk period architectural structure, it is thought that there may be a basement level beneath the spaces. According to the existing remains, the structure has a rectangular plan oriented north-south. The eastern facade of the structure was removed by bulldozers of forest management operations under the pretext of road construction [11]. The remaining sections show that the building consisted of spaces flanking a rectangular hall from both sides. The building is accessed through a door on the west side of its south facade. The rectangular space (2.60-13.00 m) extending east-west that follows the door provides access to the central hall. Of the three spaces on the west of the hall, the central one is divided by an interior wall. The structure's walls were constructed using rubble and roughly hewn stone with dry-stacked wall technique. The intermediate floors within the space have been destroyed. According to existing remains, Malanda Palace measured 23.50-17.00 m. Because a road was cut through the east facade, what lies beneath the road could not be determined [12]. (Figure 14). From Malanda Palace, pipes that carried water to Kubad Abad Palace are visible in places. No measures were taken against water and moisture in the structure; it was left to its own fate to be destroyed. Stones and building materials are being removed and taken away.  

3.7. Kubad Abad Palace

Excavations conducted in 1965 under the direction of K. Otto-Dorn first revealed the plan of a Seljuk city containing several palaces at Kubad Abad. Fortress walls, an animal park, a shipyard, and about 16 building remains were uncovered. Later, archaeological work was continued by R. Arık [8]. Kubad Abad Palace Complex, whose remains have survived to our time and whose plan and architecture are known, is an important work as the only Seljuk palace. It was begun to be constructed by Anadolu Seljuk Sultan Alaeddin Keykubat I in 1235. The palace was built on the west shore of Lake Beyşehir in Konya. Kubad Abad Palace, which has been plundered for a long time and is nearly destroyed, contains dock structures, a palace bath, ovens, and remains of a large palace and small palace [13]. Kubad Abad is an important work in Anadolu Seljuk palace architecture. Sultan Alaeddin Keykubat I requested that a palace be built on the shore of Lake Beyşehir during his Antalya Alanya campaign; he personally drew the plan and sketch of the palace and was closely involved with its architecture and implementation. It was constructed as a compound with the large and small palaces and other units around them [14]. Most of the stones used in the structures are being destroyed from remnants of construction in the area due to ignorance and indifference (Figure 15). The remaining ones are also losing their characteristics, being destroyed in the face of the environment's (sun, wind, rainfall, etc.) destructive effects, and our historical identity is being erased [15]. Simple tin sheets, metal materials, and plastic coverings have been spread over the historical structures, and the structures have not been adequately protected from water and moisture (Figure 16, Figure 17, Figure 18)

3.8. Kız Castle

Kız Castle is a ruined building with a large vault located within Lake Beyşehir near Kubad Abad Palace. Besides this structure, a vaulted space with a trapezoidal plan is found at the northeast corner, and a series of spaces are found along the fortress remains that border the island's south and east edges. Kız Castle contains a small bath. There are pipes related to clean water and waste water systems. Byzantine period architectural ornaments and mosaic floors are seen here along with Seljuk architectural works. The structure has been left to the destructive effects of the atmosphere (Figure 19). It is a structure visited by fishermen, from which stones, bricks, and other materials are removed, with no protection measures in place, and is in a state of deterioration (Figure 20). Over time, stone materials show cracking, fragmentation, and deterioration due to temperature changes in the atmosphere. Capillary water absorption and evaporation on building stones result in efflorescence. Rainwater also causes wear and detail loss on stone materials [16]. It has been determined that some of Seljuk period architectural works are exposed to adverse environmental effects, and along with lack of maintenance and indifference, building materials such as bricks, stones, tiles, wooden joists, and floor coverings are being removed and taken away. In the region, the protection of Seljuk period architectural heritage, its contribution to national tourism, and its preservation within a unified environment are necessary [17], [18].

4. Conclusion and Recommendations

To protect existing historical works from natural environmental conditions, roof and facade systems must be properly constructed by specialists. In this study, it was observed that the causes of water-moisture effects on roofs and facades of Seljuk period historical structures are rainwater coming through precipitation from the atmosphere, water rising from the ground through capillarity, the failure to resolve necessary details regarding water and moisture in roofs, eaves and gutters, insufficient measures against wetting, freeze-thaw effects, rainwater and air pollution interaction, neglect, indifference, and deterioration resulting from poor use. From example Seljuk period historical structures selected from the Konya area, the roofs and facades of Alaeddin Mosque, the remains of Alaeddin Palace that used adobe as building material, Sirçali Madrasa, Karatay Madrasa, and Ince Minaret Madrasa, as well as the remains of Kubad Abad Palace, Malanda Palace, and Kız Castle, located in the Beyşehir district and whose archaeological excavation and research have been ongoing for approximately 35 years, were found through this on-site research to have unresolved water-moisture problems on their roofs and facades. Some of the historical structures in the Beyşehir region have been left to their own fate to disappear. It was determined that some repairs were made to the structures but the most important problem—water-moisture effects—was ignored. To safely pass our historical works on to the future, structures must be protected from rainwater and the effects of water and moisture. If necessary, excavation work can continue in the excavated area, but wall sections, plasters, mortars, and other building materials that are uncovered must be protected against the destructive effects of the atmosphere. For this, without harming the structure, international design competitions should be organized among architects to develop and implement projects to protect our historical heritage against the destructive effects of water, moisture, freeze-thaw, and sun on structures' roofs and facades through proper details and insulation work. The details and insulation work related to roof and water drainage must be flawlessly resolved by specialists in a manner that does not compromise the aesthetic beauty and appeal of the historical structure during repairs. It has emerged that removing water and moisture from historical structures has been insufficient, and necessary solutions must be developed working with specialists and universities. It has been concluded that necessary steps have not been taken to protect historical works, which possess important cultural heritage from the Seljuk period, from water and moisture, and adequate measures have not been implemented to counter the destructive effects of water and moisture in historical structures. Necessary measures should be taken to protect the cultural heritage in the Konya area, which served as the capital of the Seljuk period, from water and moisture, and efforts should be accelerated on protecting historical structures. Work must be done to preserve Seljuk period architectural heritage and pass it on to future generations, to resolve water-moisture problems on roofs and facades, and to protect these works and contribute them to national tourism. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nazım Koçu / Selçuk University - Department of Architecture References

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